Leukotrienes and prostaglandins are important mediators of inflammation, each of which contributes to the development of an inflammatory response in a different way. Leukotrienes recruit inflammatory cells such as neutrophils to an inflamed site, promote the extravasation of these cells and stimulate release of superoxide and proteases which damage the tissue. Leukotrienes also play a pathophysiological role in the hypersensitivity experienced by asthmatics [See, e.g. B. Samuelson et al., Science, 237:1171-76 (1987)]. Prostaglandins enhance inflammation by increasing blood flow and therefore infiltration of leukocytes to inflamed sites. Prostaglandins also potentiate the pain response induced by stimuli.
Prostaglandins and leukotrienes are unstable and are not stored in cells, but are instead synthesized [W. L. Smith, Biochem. J., 259:315-324 (1989)] from arachidonic acid in response to stimuli. Prostaglandins are produced from arachidonic acid by the action of COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes. Arachidonic acid is also the substrate for the distinct enzyme pathway leading to the production of leukotrienes.
Arachidonic acid, which is fed into these two distinct inflammatory pathways, is released from the sn-2 position of membrane phospholipids by phospholipase A2 enzymes (hereinafter PLA2). The reaction catalyzed by PLA2 is believed to represent the rate-limiting step in the process of lipid mediator biosynthesis, including but not limited to the production of inflammatory prostaglandins and leukotrienes. When the phospholipid substrate of PLA2 is of the phosphotidyl choline class with an ether linkage in the sn-1 position, the lysophospholipid produced is the immediate precursor of platelet activating factor (hereafter called PAF), another potent mediator of inflammation [S. I. Wasserman, Hospital Practice, 15:49-58 (1988)].
Most anti-inflammatory therapies have focused on preventing production of either prostaglandins or leukotrienes from these distinct pathways, but not on all of them. For example, ibuprofen, aspirin, and indomethacin are all NSAIDs which inhibit the production of prostaglandins by COX-1/COX-2 inhibition, but have no direct effect on the inflammatory production of leukotrienes from arachidonic acid in the other pathways. Conversely, zileuton inhibits only the pathway of conversion of arachidonic acid to leukotrienes, without directly affecting the production of prostaglandins. None of these widely-used anti-inflammatory agents affects the production of PAF.
Consequently the direct inhibition of the activity of PLA2 has been suggested as a useful mechanism for a therapeutic agent, i.e., to interfere with the inflammatory response. [See, e.g., J. Chang et al, Biochem. Pharmacol., 36:2429-2436 (1987)].
A family of PLA2 enzymes characterized by the presence of a secretion signal sequenced and ultimately secreted from the cell have been sequenced and structurally defined. These secreted PLA2s have an approximately 14 kD molecular weight and contain seven disulfide bonds which are necessary for activity. These PLA2 are found in large quantities in mammalian pancreas, bee venom, and various snake venom. [See, e.g., references 13-15 in Chang et al, cited above; and E. A. Dennis, Drug Devel. Res., 10:205-220 (1987).] However, the pancreatic enzyme is believed to serve a digestive function and, as such, should not be important in the production of the inflammatory mediators whose production must be tightly regulated.
The primary structure of the first human non-pancreatic PLA2 has been determined. This non-pancreatic PLA2 is found in platelets, synovial fluid, and spleen and is also a secreted enzyme. This enzyme is a member of the aforementioned family. [See, J. J. Seilhamer et al, J. Biol. Chem., 264:5335-5338 (1989); R. M. Kramer et al, J. Biol. Chem., 264:5768-5775 (1989); and A. Kando et al, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm., 163:42-48 (1989)]. However, it is doubtful that this enzyme is important in the synthesis of prostaglandins, leukotrienes and PAF, since the non-pancreatic PLA2 is an extracellular protein which would be difficult to regulate, and the next enzymes in the biosynthetic pathways for these compounds are intracellular proteins. Moreover, there is evidence that PLA2 is regulated by protein kinase C and G proteins [R. Burch and J. Axelrod, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 84:6374-6378 (1989)] which are cytosolic proteins which must act on intracellular proteins. It would be impossible for the non-pancreatic PLA2 to function in the cytosol, since the high reduction potential would reduce the disulfide bonds and inactivate the enzyme.
A murine PLA2 has been identified in the murine macrophage cell line, designated RAW 264.7. A specific activity of 2 μmols/min/mg, resistant to reducing conditions, was reported to be associated with the approximately 60 kD molecule. However, this protein was not purified to homogeneity. [See, C. C. Leslie et al, Biochem. Biophys. Acta., 963:476-492 (1988)]. The references cited above are incorporated by reference herein for information pertaining to the function of the phospholipase enzymes, particularly PLA2.
A cytosolic phospholipase A2 alpha (hereinafter “cPLA2α”) has also been identified and cloned. See, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,322,776 and 5,354,677, which are incorporated herein by reference as if fully set forth. The enzyme of these patents is an intracellular PLA2 enzyme, purified from its natural source or otherwise produced in purified form, which functions intracellularly to produce arachidonic acid in response to inflammatory stimuli.
Bioactive metabolites of arachidonic acid, the eicosanoids, are recognized as important modulators of platelet signaling. Inhibitors of the eicosaniod pathway (e.g., aspirin) reduce the formation of thromboxane A2 (TXA2), a labile and potent platelet agonist, resulting in depression of platelet function, thrombus formation, and proven clinical benefit in reducing morbidity and mortality.
Platelets play a central role in several biological processes, including thrombosis. [See S. P. Jackson and S. M. Schoenwaelder, Nature Reviews, Drug Discovery Vol. 2, 1-15, October 2003; D. L. Bhatt and E. J. Topol, Nature Reviews, Drug Discovery Vol. 2, 15-28, January 2003]. Accordingly, recent efforts have been made to characterize platelet receptors and signaling pathways. In addition, a number of rodent models have been developed to enable the study of potential therapeutics in thrombosis. [See B. Nieswandt et al., J. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 3: 1725-1736 (2005).
Inhibitors of cytosolic phospholipase A2 are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,797,708, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
Now that several phospholipase enzymes have been identified, it would be desirable to identify chemical inhibitors of the action of specific phospholipase enzymes, which inhibitors could be used to treat inflammatory conditions, particularly where inhibition of production of prostaglandins, leukotrienes and PAF are all desired results. There remains a need in the art for an identification of such anti-inflammatory agents for therapeutic use in a variety of disease states.